An Outlook of The Recent Development of Irrigation and The Propensity for Transformation into an Efficient Engine of Growth

This paper has been specially prepared for The International Seminar on the occasion of the 70th Anniversary of the Research Center for Water Resources, Ministry of Public Works, Bandung, Indonesia, November 29, 2006.

A microsoft Doc version of this paper can be downloaded at the following link (right click>save target as) :
www.geocities.com/hafiedgany/paper_for_70th___final9_blog.doc

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An Outlook of The Recent Development of Irrigation and The Propensity for Transformation into an Efficient Engine of Growth

By: A. Hafied A. Gany *

Abstract
Development and management of Irrigation as a vital component of the total agriculture has been advancing significantly within the last few decades. Today, irrigated agriculture has undergone a huge transformation. Its role in the economic development of a country changes as a part of the transformation into the major engine of national economic growth. Under the initial transformation process, however, irrigation development had been rigorously concentrated on the production function, without proper attention on the other essential agricultural functions, which are, ecological and livelihood functions as well as other multi-functionalities of irrigated agriculture. During which, we used up all resources, land, water and other natural resources for boosting production beyond the sustainable development scenario.

With increasing demands under the scarce water resources and under the need to minimize environmental consequences, water saving under the conventional irrigation and micro-irrigation technologies are tended to be the future option, especially in the area of high value crops such as fruits and vegetables. Therefore, micro-irrigation technologies must be refined in such a way that producers can conveniently utilize the technologies to suit their own operations without jeopardizing their economic livelihoods. The conventional water saving irrigation option together with micro-irrigation are not just amongst the many irrigation and water management technology tools, but it is a tool that has multiple advantages. Both can reduce the waste of water to a negligible amount and the transport of contaminants to surface water and groundwater, while optimizing crop production and increases the quality of agricultural products.

This paper is about an outlook of the recent revelopment of irrigation and the propensity for transformation into an efficient engine of growth, giving numerous “remarks” on multi-level impacts of inapropriate applications of technolgies. The study has been addressed by means of interdisciplinary approach, including the analysis for formulating strategy toward “professionalism”, alternative measures for water conservation, land resources management, human resources management, conducive institutional setting, diversification of cropping patterns, application of modern technology, and agro-based industries. Special scrutiny is particularly given to water saving irrigation options as well as micro-Irrigation, optimization of multi-functionality of irrigated agriculture, leisure agriculture, and agro-based tourism. For fostering innovation toward steady irrigated agricultural transformation, a continuous scrutiny on the “state-of-the-arts” of irrigated agriculture as an art, science and technology, has to be backed up by consistent research and development (R&D) undertakings.

Key words: Irrigated Agriculture, Efficient Engine of Growth, Micro-Irrigation

INTRODUCTION

Parallel with the rapid development of irrigated agricultural technologies, the world also encountered by population explosion. Each year, the world’s population increases by 80-85 million people – which is in total, equivalent to an additional agricultural land of the size of India to feed the extra cumulative addition of population in a decade. This feature would bring about an additional increase of two billion people, and hence to reach a staggering of 8 billion people by 2030. Therefore, the global demand for food is correspondingly predicted to escalate in line with the world population increase (WWC, 2000).

This precarious condition impose substantial burden on irrigated agriculture to meet the food supply requirements. At the same time, the irrigation sector of the world has also been undertaken without much attention on the promotion of effective and efficient water utilization. Such an inefficient irrigation practices has been constrained by a number of technical an non-technical predicaments including institutional, technical, financial, social, trade, and environment, as well as other locally specific cultural heritages. And hence the demand for transforming irrigated agriculture into an efficient engine of growth, as the logical sequence of economic transformation of agrarian world, would be extended to somewhat more remote target, than it supposed to be under the normal circumstances.

In an attempt so resolve the problems, a number of efforts has been undertaken to identify the associated constraints of water for agriculture. Initially, the primary focus had been directed toward technical issues only. However, experience shows that to be sustainable, technological advances must be appropriate to the local socio-economic and institutional environments. For this reason, relevant non-technical issues were also scrutinized.

Today, most water resources engineers and water and land resources managers have been confined with the same observation that the roadway toward reliable water resources and irrigation development and management in the new future, would be much associated with “water saving technology” for “multiple functions” of water related activities, including “water conservation” for agriculture, industries, domestic, power, recreation and other “multi-functionalities” of irrigation and water resources in general.

WATER FOR FOOD

At the start of the third millennium, it was estimated that 20 countries in Africa and the Middle East suffer from absolute water scarcity (<1,000 m3/head/year), compared with 16 countries in 1993 (Van Tuijl, 1993). Throughout large parts of the world, limits to the water resource are in sight. Succeeding the world water scarcity, the outstanding success of the Green Revolution fades into history, and subsequently, food output per capita is once more in steady decline throughout much of the developing world. Irrigated agriculture is essential to the world’s drive to produce more food, yielding up to five times as much per unit of land as rainfed farming.

In many parts of the developing world, agriculture contributes a high proportion of Gross Domestic Product. However, irrigated agriculture uses around 70 percent of nations’ water, and must increasingly compete for available water with other sectors of the economy. It has been argued that nations can overcome food and water shortages by importing food, or “virtual” water. For example, all the countries in North Africa, with the exception of Morocco, already import a significant proportion of their grain requirements. However, imports have to be paid for, and in addition, food is also a form of security, and its production being widely seen as a stabilizing factor in rural economies.

Many developing nations aim to maintain some target level of self-sufficiency in staple foods, perhaps up to 70 percent of national need, as well as to produce cash crops for export. In the present circumstances, no developing nation can afford to neglect its agriculture, which functions as a contingency for millions of people at times of crisis. More reliable irrigation water supplies will encourage farmers to grow higher-yielding varieties and higher-value crops, thus raising rural prosperity (IPTRID, 2004).

It is widely acknowledged that agriculture must produce more from a smaller share of the national water budget (“more-crop-per-drop”). The average water use efficiency, the output per unit of water, is at present considerably below potential in many countries – except Mexico and Turkey, which are classed by the World Bank as middle income developing economies. The sector is subject to technical, institutional, economic, financial and social constraints. However, despite isolated successes, substantial improvements have still to be realized elsewhere. The question remains: How is irrigated agriculture to increase production sustainable and safely, whilst using a diminishing share of national water resources?

PROBLEMS ON WATER USE FOR IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE

Water resources

The problems and constraints in the use of water for agriculture are well known. They are briefly summarized so as to highlight prime causes and provide a framework within which to identify research needs: (1) Water quantity, (i) Limits on the overall water resources. Existing surface resources are increasingly utilized; groundwater supply is being over-drafted in many areas; (ii) Irrigated agriculture seeks more water to grow more food. However, demand for industrial, domestic, and environmental uses supply is also increasing rapidly; There are large losses in conveyance, up to 50 percent in small field channels, and in application, up to 60 percent; (iii) Excess water causes crop losses, water logging and soil salinity; and (iv) Climate change is predicted to increase temperatures, reduce rainfall and increase its variability as the case in some regions already experiencing water stress; (2) Water quality, (i) Surface and groundwater supplies are being increasingly polluted by agricultural, domestic/urban and industrial uses; (ii) Groundwater containing naturally-occurring ions like arsenic and iron is increasingly being used, causing problems in drinking water supplies and in agriculture; (iii) Saline intrusion follows over-drafting of coastal aquifers in many arid/semi-arid areas; and (iv) Secure strategies to improve groundwater quality cannot be evolved because basic data on aquifer characteristics are rarely available; (3) Water sharing, (i) Coordinated policies to develop and share available surface water between different users rarely exist at catchment’s level: concerted policies for regions and nations are even rarer; (ii) There are no existing models or mechanisms for sharing groundwater resources, particularly where they underlie national boundaries; and (iii) Distribution between farmers on surface irrigation schemes is generally inequitable, even where water rationing operations (IPTRID, 2004).

Land, Soil and Drainage

The main problems and constraints associated with land, soil and drainage among others are: (1) Lack of Appropriate Land Resources, (i) In many areas of the developing world, except parts of Africa, there are few new areas of suitable agricultural land which can be economically developed using existing water resources; (ii) Marginal lands are being over-exploited and degraded under excessive population pressures. Productive land is being lost to rapid urban and industrial development; (2) Water quality constraints, (i) Some 30 million hectares of land world wide are affected by continuing problems of water logging and salinity; (ii) In water-short areas, soil is being degraded by irrigation with brackish water; (iii) In arid areas, the long-term effects on soil structure of irrigating with low quality urban effluent are uncertain; (3) Soil conservation technology, (i) Lack of appropriate techniques for reclaiming large areas of problem soils have still to be developed, while the provision of food supplies can hardly waiting till appropriate technique be developed; (ii) Problems related to excessive water requirement for the newly developed agricultural lands.

Institutional, Economic and Social Constraints

Lack of finance, low returns: (1) Agriculture provides low returns compared with other uses of water. National finance departments are therefore reluctant to commit resources to irrigation; (2) The design of the irrigation infrastructure often constrains smallholder farmers to growing a narrow range of crops, frequently cereals; (3) The costs of water service fees in much of Asia have been allowed to fall significantly in real terms over the years. Fee recovery is also often poor. For example, in 1992 in India the Government Maintenance Finance Committee recommended a rate of $10-17/ha, whereas only $4-8/ha were actually collected. Gulati and Svendsen (1994) found the recovery rate was less than 50 percent, though it had been 100 percent in the 1960’s. Resources are therefore inadequate for effective O&M. (IPTRID, 2004).

Lack of sustainability, due to poor maintenance: (1) Many small irrigation schemes, particularly in Africa, lack informed support. (2) Many irrigation systems are deteriorating prematurely due to poor maintenance. In consequence, water supplies become increasingly unreliable and inequitable, land goes out of production, crop yields fall and the infrastructure is at risk of failure (3) Available maintenance resources may not be allocated in the most efficient manner; (4) O&M staff are often untrained in specialist disciplines needed and poorly motivated (and poorly paid as well).

Situation of the Poor: (1) In 1998, the World Bank (1999) estimated that there were 1.2 thousand million people subsisting on less than $1 per day (24 percent of developing world population), and 2.8 thousand million with less than $2 per day. Many of the poor are landless —sometimes as the result of conflict — with no assured access to water. Water rights are increasingly fully committed; (2) Poor farmers without collateral may be unable to obtain credit for the inputs needed to obtain good returns from high-yielding crops. A single crop failure can cause them to lose their land if it has been mortgaged against inputs; (3) Women, particularly in Africa, are principal users of water, both for domestic supply and for agriculture. There is no attempt to plan water developments so as to reduce their tasks; (4) Many of the poor struggle to afford basic food, though world food prices are at historic lows; (5) Poor farmers who migrate to the cities to engage in informal cash cropping in the peri-urban area use water of whatever quality is locally available.

Environment

Amongst the irrigation related environmental problems, the following are dominant: (1) Water bond diseases. Inadequate maintenance leads to silted and weeds in the gated channels, encouraging water-related diseases like schistosomiasis and malaria; (2) Silt transportation. Reservoirs are silting up at increasing rates as catchments are denuded. Between 1980- 2000, global storage capacity increased 25 percent, whereas lost capacity increased 140 percent, to stand at 10 percent of total capacity; (3) Agrochemical contaminants. Increased use of agrochemicals. Long-term impacts on human health and the environment are unknown. In the short term, fertilizers/pesticides end up in drains, promoting accelerated growth of weeds and algae, and in aquifers; (4) Outbreak of plant disease life cycle. Genetic diversity is being reduced as a few high yielding crop varieties predominate. The impact of a sudden outbreak of disease could be potentially devastating. Genetically modified crops offer potential but also bring extra risks to farmers’ livelihood, as well as to the environment; (5) Impacts of saline water. Reuse of saline water can create long-term problems. Disposal of saline water to sinks creates permanent degraded sites, with risks for future groundwater quality; and (6) Heath impacts on black water utilization. Food grown on black water and sewage sludge potentially involves risks to human health. Increasingly tight standards of hygiene in industrialized nations may bar developing countries from exporting their agricultural production.

ENHANCEMENT OF IRRIGATED AGRICULTURAL FUNCTIONS

Multifunctional Roles of Irrigated Agriculture

In conjunction with the increasing demands of the escalated population growth, together with the subsequent agricultural demands for agro-based communities, the multi-directional management has been increasingly popular. Parallel with this trend, the roles of irrigated agriculture to support the rising demands, also tends to shift from single role (i.e. productive function) toward multiple functions of irrigated agriculture. The future propensity of multi-directional management in irrigated agriculture has to be developed to cover at least three major functions, namely: (1) Productive function; (2) Ecological function; (3) Living function.

Productive Functions: During the last few decades, the productive function of irrigated agriculture has been fully employed to use up every available potential for boosting agricultural productions: (1) Optimization of agricultural productivity per unit area of agricultural land; (2) Expansion of agricultural cropping areas; (3) Protection of agricultural lands from prolong degradation, or land fatigue due to over exploitation; (4) Improvement of soil quality by means of proper regulation or arrangement of fertile sediments transport into land plots during water allocation; (5) Consistent reinforcement of soil productivity.

Ecological Functions: Most of the conventional irrigation planning within the last couple of decades had yet put the ecological functions of irrigated agriculture into an adequate consideration. It was only after the Rio de Janeiro World Summit of Sustainable Developments, much of the ecological function have been given attention, among others for: (1) Substitution of soil water depletion; (2) Stabilization of river runoff; (3) Flood prevention by virtue of lessening the sharp peak of flood storm (e.g. The bounded paddy field, indirectly functions as temporary withholding of flood water); (4) Prevention of land subsidence; (5) Maintaining the appropriate balance of water quality; (6) Purification or decontamination of exterior air property; (7) Modification of climate at micro level; (8) Prevention of soil erosion; (9) Desalination; (10) Conservation of wet lands, and breeding ground for birds and other life species; and (11) Enhancement of appropriate balance of natural water resources cycles.

Living Function: Similar to the above function, the living function of irrigation has also been addressed but very limited concerns. This important function has only been regarded trivially significant. Today, however, this function has been placed amongst the essential functions of irrigation, among others are: (1) Improvement of the living environment and sanitation of agricultural lands; (2) Provision of a number of accessible water for daily necessities, and fire stations at farm level; (3) Emergency provision of raw water for domestic supplies during the water scarcity season; (4) As a communication facility for inter-village collaboration through organizational management activities; (5) Facilitating the enhancement of convenient environment with environmentally sound atmosphere; (6) Facilitating the provision of socio-cultural and educational based recreation; and (7) Stabilization of environmentally friendly human amenities, leisure agriculture, environmentally based tourism and recreation.

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT

Institutional Demands for Irrigation Development and Management

Due to the dynamic shifts on a number living and livelihood aspects of the people, along the escalating growth of population, the economic and technological development, are becoming imperative. These include operation and management of irrigation, both from the perspective of technical and non technical concerns. For consistent implementation of irrigation development as well as efficient operation and maintenance, it is highly essential to have a well established institutional arrangement. For example, in attempting to set up an appropriate institution, a current institutional arrangement is currently being undertaken in South Korea. The activities are conducted in accordance with the growing demands and changes in irrigated agriculture. Under the dynamic progress of institutional arrangement, it has been evident that the underlying changes and application of irrigated agricultural technology are the determinant factors in the shaping the institutional arrangement.

The underlying approach for institutional adjustment has been on the basis of appropriate balance between the economic demand and supply of irrigated agriculture in line with the major principles of technological innovation. However, it is not unusual that the institutional set up is often determined by the political will of the ruling elite for insisting change of the relevant regulatory instruments. Beside, the influence of certain political ideology with adequate budgetary power could also become determinant factor that should not be overlooked or underestimated.

Participatory Irrigation Management

For many years, during the early stage of irrigation development, the farming community considered irrigation as an “art” rather than “technology”. During which, most of irrigated agricultural undertakings were conducted by the community members on the basis of mutual assistance. However, as irrigation development become more and more expanded to larger areas, the operation and management become hardly conducted by the farming community on mutual assistance. At this stage, the operation and management of irrigation were then centered on technological application with subsequent subsidies by the government for both development and management. Except for small scale irrigation, the operation and management were then increasingly dependent upon special irrigation technology, while the farming communities are still performing on the basis of the previous experiences. For which, irrigation operation and maintenance were conducted without much involving the farming communities as well as other stakeholders. As a result, many irrigation schemes, ranging from medium to large scale were reportedly lack of operation and maintenance.

Being under the poor performance, the role of irrigation water for food production, health and environment has increasingly become susceptible in terms of accessibility to adequate quantity and reasonable quality, as well as timely distribution. Being the case, it is essential to give special thought about the new approach toward efficient irrigation water management, involving the water users, planners, and decision makers at all levels (participatory irrigation management).

Under the participatory irrigation management, the issues to address are not only about irrigated agricultural engineering, or socio economics in isolation. Rather, it concerns the challenging management issues, involving strategic approach, institutional, as well as psychographic elements of multi-actors surroundings. The participatory approach involves the new and important roles of the water resources institutions, and most significantly, as the fundamental reform of the role sharing amongst the relevant government institutions as well as the stakeholders.

Professional Code of Ethics

Owing to the fact of the demands for participatory irrigation management, which has been developed in line with the demands for professionalism in irrigation development and management, it became an immediate urgency for irrigation related professionals (which are highly based on interdisciplinary nature) to work together through integrated professional organization. For maintaining a “togetherness” principle amongst the organizations involved in irrigation development and management, there is currently an emerging tendency to establish some sort of “professional code of conduct” to bind the multi-disciplinary professionals in performing their professional activities together. For illustration, the engineers and multidisciplinary professionals who are involved in rural development in Japan, have recently been merging their professional organization under one “umbrella organization” referred to as the Society of Irrigation, Drainage and Rural Development – SIDRD. Subsequently, they mutually establish and implement a united professional code of conduct, and professional ethics in terms of professional norms, behavior and attitude for maintaining consistent professional integrity.

The professional code of conducts are consisted of mutually agreed principles as highlighted in the following outlines: (1) Preamble, to clarify the background needs of establishing an ethical codes, and calls of attention to irrigation management challenges; (2) Cannon (an instrument for organizational coordination) suggests values, and respects for irrigation related professionals to act upon; (3) Obligation for harmonizing of technology and environmental sustainability; (4) Obligation for openness and transparency for professional services to the community; (5) Obligation to perform constant efforts to elevate themselves, intellectually and morally and shall make most of their expertise, skills and experiences toward sustainable development of the society; (6) Obligation to avoid any misconducts, dishonesties, and other such personal unjust; (7) Obligation to maintain harmonious collaboration with other professionals and consistently share of ideas, information as well as experiences to each other (Hirose, Shinichi, 2003).

STATE OF TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS

Conjunctive Use of Surface and Ground Water

Due to the escalating degradation of water sources, particularly for the excessive ground water exploitation in the “arid” and “semi-arid” parts of the world, the balance between surface and sub-surface water potential became increasingly unstable. In fact, the ground water has currently being taken up by many regions as the main source of irrigation water for supporting food security program and for satisfying socio-economic development. This has been the case for rural poor communities in many South Asian Countries. The case of Indus plain in Pakistan, for example, about 50% of the total irrigation water demand in the area has been taken from groundwater through more than half a million of pump-wells owned by the farmers. Some of the pumps are operated on the basis of conjunctive use approach. For the latter cases, conjunctive use has been recorded to have minimized the negative impacts of soil salinity in the agricultural land concerned. Nevertheless, it has been a common practice of the farmer in the area to mix the use of ground and surface waters without considering the appropriate ratio for sustainable implementation in the long run. As a result, about six millions hectares of agricultural lands suffered from severe soil salinity, in addition to about 40,000 ha of agricultural lands per become damaged due to soil salinity.

For resolving such a severe problem, a number of endeavors have been taken in the region among others by means of soil leaching when the water available to perform such effort. Other option is by applying irrigation water at an appropriate mixture and consistent monitoring in such a way that the water would not harm the plant growth. At the area in which irrigation water is hardly adequate to perform such operation, the most common solution is to cultivate salt tolerant plant variety. (ICID, 2003).

Alternative of Domestic Liquid Wastes for Irrigation Water Supply

Considering the escalating scarcity of water in many regions of the world today, several alternatives have been scrutinized for seeking feasible alternative water sources for irrigation. Among the many alternatives, the reuse of domestic affluent has a prospective potential. Dilution technology is currently become an obvious instrument for reuse and recycling of domestic wastes. Furthermore, the domestic wastes are actually contains nutritious substances for allowing optimum plant growth. Therefore, the diluted domestic wastes may to certain extents help minimizing even eliminating considerable costs of fertilizer. The treatment costs of domestic wastes per-se’ could be eliminated accordingly.

Several experiments have been undergone to justify the feasibility of reusing domestic wastes by means of diluting technology, considering also the ways of minimizing the hazardous impacts to health and environment. Most of the experiments show positive results (technically and financially justifiable) for extensive application in the near future. Out of several combinations of treatments that had been observed in the experiments for reusing domestic wastes in Iran, for example, the “MAIZE-704” corn variety indicated a promising result by means of direct utilization without even applying dilution technique, produces an amount of 11,880 kg of dry corn/ha. The experiment by diluting the domestic waste water at the mixture of 25% waste water to 75% fresh water at the total productivity of 10,450 kg of dry corn/ha. In fact, the treatment of more freshwater mixture from the series of experiment, demonstrated that there have been no indications of negative impacts (“zero risk”) on the plant products (Banejad, H., and Souri, H., 2003).

Micro-Irrigation Technology

Micro-irrigation is nothing but a precision farming technology where water is applied to the crop root zone when needed and at the accurate amount. With micro-irrigation, “fertigation” (fertilizer application together with irrigation water) and “chemigation” (chemical application such as pesticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc) can be effectively and efficiently applied.

Micro-irrigation, as was used for the first time in the United States of America in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s for greenhouse research and production, has now become rapidly increasing throughout the world – and it is would continue to be a viable irrigation method for agricultural production in the years to come. Under the limited water resources with the demands for minimizing environmental impacts, micro irrigation technology will unquestionably play even more important role, particularly for the area where high value crops such as fruits and vegetables are cultivated.

During the last couple of decades, micro-irrigation has been increasingly popular in developing countries due to some distinct characteristic, among others: (1) It has a high water use efficiency; (2) High potential for enhancing plant growth as well as crop yield; (3) Improving application of fertilizers; (4) High potential for decreasing energy requirements; and (5) Fairly effective for improving cultural practices; (6) Micro-irrigation systems are highly flexible in terms of location, it may be used in orchards, upland field crops, landscapes and greenhouses. The only problem that still associated with micro-irrigation is the higher investment costs for installation of the networks system – There currently several experiments conducted to address this issue.

In line with the rapid development of technology, a number of research and development activities are currently conducted for micro-irrigation with special scrutiny on crop production and resource conservation, as the prerequisites for advance technology, including capacity building, education and training. On technology research and development, much of the burning issues need to be examined, including: (1) Crop water and nutrient requirements; (2) Nutrients and chemical management; (3) System hardware, sensors and automation; (4) System design; (5) Installation and maintenance (drip, trickle, micro sprayer, micro sprinkler, micro jet, porous pipes, sub-surface drip irrigation); (6) Modeling and decision support systems; and (7) Evaluation of low-cost micro-irrigation emitters for extensive application in the approaching years.

Micro-Irrigation as Water Saving Alternative

Particularly on the arid and semi-arid regions, the water is increasingly becoming a scarce and competitive (economic) commodity. To meet this challenge, several experiments had been conducted in Iran for observing the efficiency of non-conventional irrigation as the water saving alternative. One of the experiment concluded that application of “micro-irrigation” has a high potential for effective control of water application to meet the actual water requirement of the plants. The “sub surface drip irrigation system” is considered to be the most promising alternative in the near future. Under this system, the water distribution could be implemented homogeneously up to the root zone with more or less meeting the actual demands without substantial water losses, and also “free maintenance” – despite the requirement for higher investment costs. Most significantly, is that fertilizer application could be easily implemented by diluting the fertilizer to irrigation water and applying it directly to the root zone without significant water losses (SeyedHossain SdrGhaen et al., 2003).

Utilization of Satellite Images Data for Water Requirement Planning

The conventional irrigation planning in the modern world today has been severely encountered by the scarcity of data for producing good quality planning. Not surprisingly, the planning and design activities under such circumstances were mostly conducted by using simulated data, which are far from accurate. As a result, the planning and design outputs eventually come up with either under designed, or over designed, both with subsequent multi-level impacts on construction as well as operation and management activities. Today, a number of studies have been carried out for minimizing the impacts of data deficiency in planning, including the use of satellite image data and/or complementary with geographical information system (GIS).

For illustration, a study conducted by Huang, Hsin-Ming at.al., 2003,, about the use of satellite images data for irrigation water requirement planning in Wang-Dan Station, Pingtung Irrigation association, in south west Formosa Island, Taiwan. The analysis model was generated from the combination between GIS and satellite images data with an amazing result that the association planning engineers could rapidly plan irrigation scheme, make an exact adjustment of water requirement and allocation, as well as crop type distribution (Huang, Hsin-Ming, et.al., 2003). Despite the fact that this experiment is still developing, its contribution to irrigation planning technology is undoubtedly highly prospective for world-wide application in the near future – having its economical potential, shorter time application, less manpower requirement, and yet without even touching the body surface of the globe.

ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF IRRIGATION

Environmentally Friendly Irrigation Water Management on Paddy Field

Coping with water scarcity constraint, there would be not much available alternatives but emphasizing the agricultural production system for applying for water saving effort, while the demands for production function as well as for environment must become the major consideration for determining the real time water allocation. For rice cultivation, however, the water application principles have been by its nature met several prerequisites for environmental conservation. However, with the escalation of chemical fertilizer application on agricultural lands, a number of negative impacts have been identified, including the growing up of nitrogen and phosphorus concentration in surface and ground waters. These nutrients induced eutrophication of water bodies. Further to this, the prolong application of chemicals such as pesticides and weed control, pollutes rivers and lakes through runoff, or groundwater leaching.

Given such negative consequences, the environmentally friendly irrigation development for paddy field become significantly important goals in the near future. This is particularity true for the fact that population growth would always followed by escalation of food demands. In spite of the determinant factors, it is equally important to ensure the effective instruments for mitigating the water constraints, minimizing the negative impacts while enhancing the positive aspects for environmental sustainability.

Enhancement of Bio-Environment Functions of Irrigated Paddy Field

Since early time, the human nature has been attached to the behavior of consuming up the available natural resources without considering the needs for minimizing or conserving extra consumption of water for socio-economic livelihood. Consequently, the genetics’ diversities, species, and sustainable ecosystem have been under the outrageous threat. For a long time, the production function of irrigated paddy fields have been maintained at the high level of productivity, which have also been conducted in complementary with the enhancement of ecology, environment and other externality functions. Today, however, the externality function of irrigated paddy field is regarded by many people as an intangible and less important, relative to the production functions. Therefore, externality function of irrigation for public services, has only been regarded as the secondary or even tertiary function, with subsequently addressed as the very low development priority.

In an attempt to preserve irrigated agricultural ecosystem together with the efforts to enhance conservation of biodiversities, a number of endeavors could be implemented. These among others are diversification of perennial plant varieties, with special scrutiny on the agro-based environmental and hydro-based tourism industry. This arrangement could eventually attract domestic as well as foreign tourist to enjoy agro-based recreation, water-based as well as bio-environment amenities, and other such leisure agriculture, as amongst the multi-functionality and externality functions of irrigated agriculture.

Environmentally Friendly Reservoir Operation

In general, the policy for operation of multipurpose reservoir is mostly geared toward the demands for fulfilling the water allocation as previously determined in the design, including the water supplies for irrigated agriculture, raw water for domestic and municipalities, industries and other such targets. The conventional reservoir operations today, however, in most cases are not considering the water allocation for maintaining the appropriate balance of water ecology and water for environmental sustainability.

With the increasing concerns and problems associated with environmental impacts, the reservoir operation should also be adjusted in such a manner that the future reservoir operation has to incorporate the water allocation for maintaining the appropriate balance of water ecosystem, in particular, and environment in general. For illustration, a research study analysis conducted for Shihmen Dam and the downstream environment of Yongfu stream branch in Taiwan (small-medium river category), it was concluded that at least 3.00 m3/second of water discharge has to be released to the river to maintain the quality of habitat between the Shihmen Dam and the downstream environment of Yongfu river, stream branch. This feature of course would not apply for all, but it subjects to individual character of river and reservoir condition, however, for the future reservoir operation a set of policies for each individual reservoir must be set up (by considering the water for environment) on case by case basis (Wu Ray-Shyan et.al., 2003).

For future reservoir operation, therefore, must strictly consider the multiple impacts of reservoir operation. All the relevant parameters (tangible as well as the intangible one) should be taken into consideration and incorporate them into the multi-objective analysis. This aspect sounds, simple, but in reality it would become dilemmatic challenges for future reservoir operators. This is particularly the case for reservoirs that had previously been designed and operated for supporting the optimum internality functions only, so that there is not much potential water available for reservoir operation to meet the externality functions.

Multi-Level Impacts of Silent Revolution (Pump Revolution)

Before the fading away of the so called “Green Revolution” another more silent and crucial transformation is currently severely hampering the water resources on Earth. Dissemination of relatively cheap pumping technology has revolutionized access to both surface water and groundwater. The world is currently suffered from “Pump Revolution (Silent Revolution)” together with the subsequent multi-levels positive and negative impacts on socio-hydrology, water management as well as threats to sustainable environmental ecosystem.

With the steady declining of the costs of pump application, pumps to a large degree are now owned privately and spread up rapidly to reach the remotest parts of agricultural areas. This matter has brought about logical consequences of extra complication (of the already complicated) water management.

Consequences of the Pump Revolution: From a number of experiences on the use of pumps in various parts of Asian Continent, it was recorded a number of negative impacts among others: (1) Hydrological Impacts, in terms of radical alteration of hydrological regime, reduction of the base flow of the rivers, negative impacts on water quality and acceleration of evolution process of soil salinity formation, as well as excessive groundwater mining.; (2) Social Impacts, from collective as well as individual ownership of pumps, it tends to exclude the poor farmers’ community. The social problems become apparent when community approvals are required for expanding the pumps’ services beyond the boundary areas owned by the traditional community; (3) Management impacts, from application of the off-season water utilization, during which the mass mobilization of pumps is always possible without pre-arranged schedule. As a result, water allocation and distribution within the context of river basin water resources management, conjunctive water use management become extremely difficult and complex; (4) Economic Impact, in which the complex interaction between hydrological cycles in general and the unbalanced level of water redistribution. Water pumping more than often take account of water sources (water use right) that should be under the proportion of the gravity water distribution system; (5) Environmental Impacts, among others due to the excessive water mining with the obvious consequences of drastic draw-down of ground water-table, ground-water pollution, land subsidence, acceleration of surface water salination and so on (Molle, Franscois et.al., 2003).

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Economic Analysis Cases for “Water-market” and Water-banking

In order to test the “market” characteristic versus the economic value of water and future prospect of establishment of water banking alternative, an experiment has been conducted in Taiwan (Chiueh, Yawen, et.al., 2003), to develop some sort of balance sheet of water bank, taking water loan as bank asset and water deposit, bank liability, and to define the water deposit supply function and water loan demand function of the water market. This experiment was supported by empirical model through simulation model by application of hypothetical Khaoshiung Water Bank. The conclusion among others are: “reallocation of water for industrial uses through market mechanism to a certain extent helps realizing effective institutional reform measure that help reduce the requirement on hardware construction, and thus is suited for the current market situation in Taiwan” (Chiueh, Yawen, et.al., 2003).

Despite that this analysis on market economy of water is still on the way to suit the economic situation in Taiwan, however, the trend of addressing water as the limited market economy (of Taiwan as the special case study) toward the possibility of establishment of “Water Banking”, is something that should not be overlooked or underestimated. For the developing countries, like Indonesia, this sort of experiment is still debatable from the public perspective, however, the case is worth studying, at least for scrutinizing the background perspective and empirical alternatives to accommodate such a “market demand” on water in the future, as a form of “state-of-the-arts” which is currently become one of the burning issues in the world dialogue on water.

System of Rice Intensification (SRI): Micro-economy and Socio-political Perspective

In an attempt to enhance agricultural technology for boosting crop production, without application of chemicals, today, an environmentally friendly technology refers to as System of Rice Intensification – SRI, has been addressed. The SRI technology was initially developed in Madagascar, but it has been recently tested and applied in many rice producing countries, including recently in Indonesia. The basic principle of this technology is on “organic farming” by means of composting in combination with appropriate planting techniques as well as innovations on seedling technology.

Some professionals and scholars who are in favor of the SRI put argument that this technology would soon become unprecedented revolution for increasing rice production of the world. In contrast, however, some professionals and scholars who are against the SAR technology contended that this practice is only a short term trend, which will soon fading away (Namara, Regassa, E. et al, 2003).

A series of intensive experiments on SRI in Sri Lanka, by comparing the SRI and non-SRI cultivations for 120 farmers in two locations, in which half of the farmers are pro-SRI, resulting at about 40% of the respondent stating the increase of productivity, however, the magnitude of production increase was used up to supplement the cost of crop production even with additional labor wages.

Micro-economy: From micro-economic perspective, SRI has a prospective technological application for faming communities with certain limited of farmer members. Bearing in mind about the demand for intensive management efforts, however, the extensive dissemination of SRI would require a relatively long period time, and intensive irrigated agricultural extension services.

Socio-political: Despite the limited potential of SAR from micro-economic perspective, nonetheless, from the sosio-political aspects, the SRI technology possesses a large potential for becoming an effective “agricultural development instrument” in line with diversified nature of farming communities that are demanding for special approach to suit their sosio-cultural entities.

Temporary Transfer of Water-use-right for Drought Management

With the dramatic increase of water demands for non-agricultural purposes, (particularly for domestic and industries), Most recently in many part of the world, provision of raw water for non-agricultural purposes has progressively become problematic. In the mean time, provision of raw water from new water sources is increasingly complicated. In an attempt to resolve the problems, an idea emerges from the day-to-day practice of water utilization to address the so called temporary transfer of water use right from agricultural sector to meet the water demands for domestic and industries. Since 1990’s decade, many Asian Countries, particularly on urban areas, has been suffered from escalating water scarcity, due to continuous declining of irrigation development, and the escalation of land conversion, on top of the impacts of global climatic change. For instance, in Taiwan, the available water potential for irrigation has been reportedly decreased from 15 billion ton to 12.2 billion ton per year with an average of about 19% (Lin, Wei-Taw, 2003). Being the case, parallel with the limiting opportunity for short-term exploitation of domestic and industrial water sources, the farmers are allowed to transfer their water use right temporarily, in condition that they must anticipate the long term planning for application of drought management approach. This is one of the “future subjects” (research and development, as well as interdisciplinary studies) of water resources management that has to be given urgent thought, from now on.

THE PROPENSITY FOR TRANSFORMATION INTO AN EFFICIENT ENGINE OF GROWTH

Toward Transformation

Structural Change: Until today, agriculture has undergone a huge transformation. Its role in the economic development of a country changes as a part of the transformation. In the development stages of agricultural transformation, particularly in the food staples sector, it was regarded as the basic instrument of national economic growth. Subsequently, as a country develop beyond its low-income agrarian status the agricultural sector begins to take a secondary role as an engine of growth, which has to be transformed further toward an efficient engine of growth.

Agricultural versus Non-agricultural Development: At present, dramatic increase in world population and rapid advancement of new technologies and knowledge in this era of globalization, food production becomes one of the most crucial issues to be addressed. Therefore, there is a need to look seriously into the potential of producing food and agricultural based industries as one of the most important sectors to enhance the livelihood of farmers, stakeholders and regional economy. While the impacts of globalization on the agricultural sector will undoubtedly increase, certain limitations must be recognized. This is particularly true for developing countries, where the productivity gap between agricultural and non agricultural sector has always been wide and has increased further under globalization. For a long time, we all have been highly and rigorously concentrating on the production function, without adequately giving attention on other highly essential agricultural functions, which are ecological function and livelihood functions as well as other multi-functionalities. During which, we used up all resources, land water and other natural resources for boosting production beyond the sustainable development, principle. With the modern irrigation techniques, agriculture can be turned into an efficient growth engine.

Strategic Issues toward Transformation: Out of the boundless multidisciplinary questions to answer, there are at least six strategic issues for us to think about. These are: (1) The current status of agriculture toward the road map for transforming this sector (2) Addressing the core issue of agro-based industries, which is legislation issue; (3) Application of modern technology for enhancing food production; (4) Innovative technologies strategies and policies in Agricultural Management; (5) Optimum utilization of water and land resources; and update knowledge of current research and development (R&D) on crop production (ICID, 2006).

Constraints of Transformation: In order to be able to move steadily toward transforming irrigated agriculture into an efficient engine of growth, a number of observable constraints must be put into the fore-most thorough consideration. These are: (1) Resources allocation, including HRD; (2) Institutional arrangement; (3) Appropriate utilization of technology, including environmental technology; (4) Financial security for sustainable development and management; and (5) Appropriate legal instrument (legislation) and consistent enforcement.

Driving Forces toward Efficient Engine of Growth

Population Explosion: Within the last 50 years, the annual population growth in terms of growth rate, and demands for food has been the primary concern of determining the development policy of the country of the world, including the demand for food in the developing countries. It is estimated that the increasing of demand between 50 and 70% is explainable by the growth in population and the increasing number of people to feed.

The FAO 2004, estimated that the world population is projected to increase by an average of 1.60% annually between 1990 and 2000, and by 1.12% between 2010 and 2025. After that period the population growth rate is estimated to be about 0.83% over the last 25 years. This population growth pattern is more or less similar to the entire developing countries with an average rate of 1.92% annually in 1999-00 to an average of about 1.31% annually by 2025, and thereafter at an average of 0.83% between 2025 and 2050. In Asia and America, however, the growth rate is projected to fall down to about 1.00% by 2025 and tended to be much lower between 2025 and 2050.

Food Production: It was evident at the end of the 20th century that the world experienced the ability to feed its population. In some part of the world, however, the food supply condition is already critical. By and large, the carry-over of grain stocks is less than 15% of the current total production, at about 1906 million tons in 1998. This leaves only a narrow margin to meet unexpected downturns caused by climate irregularity or man-made crop damages. As October 2005, FAO reported the number of countries facing serious food shortages, at 39, with 25 in Africa, 11 in Asia/Near East, 2 in Latin America, and 1 in Europe. Therefore, irrigated agriculture would play substantial role in addressing the food and nutrition gaps in many part of the globe in the upcoming century.

Today, irrigation of the world is currently more than 250 million ha, or about 17% of the total cultivated lands of the world. This irrigated land produce about 40% of the total agricultural output of the world. In spite of these figures, there has been a remarkable decline in the rate of expansion of irrigated lands since the late 1970’s, due to limitation of available land and scarcity of water resources.

Ground-water deficit: Despite the fact that about 40% of the world food comes from irrigated croplands, water tables are dropping steadily in several food producing regions, as the groundwater mining is faster than the natural capacity to replenish the deficit. Hence, the farmers around the globe, is currently suffered from water deficit at about 160 billion cubic meter per annum. This amount used to produce almost ten percent of the global grain production. This matter has to be addressed as a life challenge for enhancement of the driving forces of sustainable development.

Means of Transformation

Under the competitive situation of the world, each agrarian country must exercise itself for transforming its irrigated agriculture, in line with the global direction, with special scrutiny on increase irrigated agricultural productivities, competitiveness, proper linkages with other development sectors, toward creating new agro-based sources growth from new emerging industries, including agro-based industries. Most importantly, that the irrigated agricultural sector should remain profitable and relevant with the national and global market trends. In the meant time, in order that the irrigated agriculture to remain competitive, the irrigated agricultural sector should transform itself to allow increase in productivity, to keep pace with the market demands in terms of both quantity and quality.

For timely and effective preparation of irrigated agricultural sector to take off, the following prerequisites need to take into accounts: (1) There is an urgent need to address the “strategy toward professionalism” with adequate number and capacity to apply for the demanded technologies; (2) Conservation of the degraded water resources – IWRM addressing both quality and quantity as two sides of the coin. (Including Flood and Drought mitigation); (3) Land resources management; among other the impact of extremely small land holding peasant; land conversion into non agricultural utilization; low income of agricultural products and secure market condition; (4) Human resources, capacity and availability; willingness to participate by addressing the appropriate combination between top down and bottom up approach; (5) Conducive institutional setting, transparency, democratization, and decentralization process; (6) Adequate financial resources for conducting Sustainable O&M of irrigation infrastructures; (7) Diversification of cropping pattern conducive to market, taking into consideration of the use of modern technology, and agro-based industries; (8) Enhancement of Micro-Irrigation development and management; (9) Application of agricultural practices by optimizing the multi-functionality of irrigated agriculture; (10) Enhancement of leisure agriculture, and agro-based tourism; and (11) Continuous observations and experiments to the “state-of-the-arts” of irrigated agriculture as an art, science and technology, though consistent R&D activities.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

During the last few decades, irrigation development and management – as a vital component of the total agriculture – has been advancing remarkably to support food production. In the subsequent development implementation, irrigated agriculture has undergone even more wide-ranging transformation. Its role in the economic development of a country changes as a part of the transformation into the major engine of national economic growth. During the initial phase of transformation process, however, irrigation development had been thoroughly concentrated on the production function, with only trivial attention on other indispensable agricultural functions, i.e. ecological, livelihood, as well as other multi-functionalities of irrigated agriculture. During which, we used up all resources, land, water and other natural resources for boosting production beyond the sustainable development scenario. Under such agricultural mode of production, together with the escalating population explosions, and the human-made environmental hazards as well as the increasing world water scarcity, the world is currently suffered from horrifying water-related “tragedy of the commons”.

With increasing demands under the scarce water resources and under the need to minimize environmental consequences, water saving under the conventional irrigation and micro-irrigation technologies are tended to be the future option, especially in the area of high value crops such as fruits and vegetables. Therefore, micro-irrigation technologies must be refined in such a way that producers can conveniently utilize the technologies to suit their own operations without jeopardizing economic livelihoods. Both the conventional water saving irrigation together with micro-irrigation options are not just technology tools, but it is a tool that has multiple advantages. Both can reduce the wastes of water to a negligible amount and the transport of contaminants to surface water and groundwater, while optimizing crop production and increases the quality of agricultural products.

To prevent the irrigated agriculture from perpetuating of the multi-level impacts of inappropriate application of technologies, special scrutiny must be taken to learn from experiences in the past, and subsequently assess and adopt the best available technological innovations, without disregarding the indigenous technology that have been adopted by the communities from generation to generation, through “participatory irrigation management” approach.

The propensity of irrigated agriculture for transformation into an efficient engine of growth, particularly for the developing countries like Indonesia, is not an impossible target to achieve. However, it requires quite significant efforts to enhance every stages of the implementation strategy toward professionalism in irrigated agriculture, and with consistent support from the government. This is particularly important for maintaining irrigated agricultural sector to remain profitable and relevant with the national and global market trends by means of substantial increase in productivity, while keeping pace with the market demands. Complementary to this, the other indispensable agricultural functions, i.e. ecological, livelihood, as well as other multi-functionalities of irrigated agriculture should not be overlooked or under estimated.

On the policy making level, the most immediate targets that have to be put into actions are formulating strategy toward “professionalism”, among others by: Appropriate determination of alternative measures for water conservation, land resources management, human resources management, conducive institutional setting, diversification of cropping patterns, application of modern technology, and agro-based industries.

On the implementation level, special scrutiny is particularly given to water saving irrigation options as well as micro-Irrigation, optimization of multi-functionality of irrigated agriculture, leisure agriculture, and agro-based tourism. The last but certainly not least, for fostering innovation toward steady irrigated agricultural transformation, a continuous scrutiny on the “state-of-the-arts” of irrigated agriculture as an art, science and technology, has to be backboned by consistent and professional as well participatory research and development (R&D) undertakings with subsequent application of the resulted innovations.

<Gany, A.H.A, November 10, 2006>
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* ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mr. A. Hafied A. Gany was born in Watan Soppeng, South Sulawesi, Indonesia, on November 10, 1944. In 1979, he obtained M.Sc. degree from the University of Southampton, U.K. In 1993 he obtained an interdisciplinary Ph.D. majoring Engineering, Economics, Sociology, and Demography at the University of Manitoba, Canada. From 1995 to 1999, he had been assigned as the Director of Water Resources Management and Conservation, DGWRD; Secretary General of the Indonesian National Committee of International Commission of Irrigation and Drainage 1993-2001; President of the Indonesian Chapter of INPIM 1996 till present; The Indonesian Committee Members for Professional Civil Engineers’ Assessor since 1995.

From 1999 to 2000 as The Executive Secretary to the Directorate General of Water Resources, Ministry of Public Works; 2000-2001, Assistant to Deputy of Water Resources, State Minister of Public Works; 2001-2002 Director of The Research Institute of Water Resources, Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures; 2002-2003 Executive Secretary to the Research and Development Agency, Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructures; From September 2003 till present, as a Senior HRD Instructor, Ministry of Public Works; From 2001 till present as The Vice President of The Indonesian National Committee of Irrigation and Drainage (INACID).

He holds a Ministerial Award for 20 years outstanding services to the Ministry of Public Works in 1988, and three Presidential Awards: (1) The 30 years outstanding services to the Government of Indonesia, August 1996; (2) Presidential Award for an outstanding professional achievement, December 1996; and (3) Presidential Award for special attribute and contribution to the Development Program of Indonesia.
Dr. Gany has published more than 100 professional papers and books, beside his experiences to attend national and international seminars, symposia, conferences and congresses.

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